Where is opium poppy grown

In contrast, the optimum result, in terms of alkaloid presence and peak shape, was obtained using the solvent mixture i. For this reason, this extraction solvent mixture was used for all subsequent extraction's. For each source, the mean weight of each of the alkaloids in poppy seeds was calculated. When the levels of morphine in poppy seeds from each of the different sources was compared Table 7 , it was found that there was much variation within batch but also between sources of poppy seeds.

There is much variation in the extracted opiate compounds, which is primarily due to the environmental differences of the seeds Katrine et al. The country of origin for both of these poppy seed sources is unknown. When the same comparison was carried out for codeine Table 7 it was also found that there was much variation within different portions of the same batch and between sources of poppy seeds as was the case with morphine.

Source 2, which was found to have a level of morphine much higher than the other sources, was also found to have a higher level of codeine. No other similarities can be drawn from the data.

It was also found that the same source with the highest levels of morphine and codeine also exhibited the highest levels of thebaine. Noscapine was identified in only two of the eight sources of poppy seeds Table 7. It was found that the seeds from source 7 contained the highest levels of noscapine of the two sources where noscapine was identified. Papaverine was detected in some of the analyzed seeds but peaks were so small that it was not possible to quantify them.

It has been identified that sub-varieties of Papaver somniferum L. However, this taxonomic information was not available from the suppliers of the seeds. It has been known since Annett, that factors, such as the season in which the plants are grown, weather conditions, and quality and type of fertilizer used can greatly affect the levels of alkaloids biosynthesised by Papaver somniferum L.

In turn, the levels of alkaloids found in opium latex will also be affected. No data currently exist that compares levels of alkaloids in opium latex and alkaloids from the same plant but it is assumed that the levels would correlate. On this basis, the country of origin, where the plant was grown in the field e. This means that if a batch of poppy seeds is harvested from one field, naturally there will be variation in the levels of alkaloids from each of the plants. It has also been shown that the alkaloids present in the opium latex may contaminate the poppy seeds as part of the growing process and that a batch of poppy seeds is the combination of multiple fields in one country: all of these factors may explain why there is such variation within batch and between sources of poppy seeds.

However, the muffin matrix greatly interfered with the extraction process. During the extraction process, a fatty emulsion was formed which affected further sample preparation techniques Figure 3. These aliquots were filtered twice prior to being transferred into HPLC vials however when the chromatograms were analyzed for these muffin extractions, no alkaloids were identified.

For this reason, it was not possible to include the poppy seed muffins extract results in the comparison between harvested poppy seeds, thermally processed seeds on their own and poppy seeds on the top of bread buns. In addition, seed portions from three randomly selected sources were extracted and analyzed with the results shown in Table 8. Again, as was established with extractions of harvested poppy seeds there was much variation in the alkaloids identified and in the levels of those alkaloids present, Deuterated morphine was added prior to extraction of the alkaloids from the seeds and percentage extractions were incorporated into the calculations.

Figure 3. Sample tubes containing poppy seed muffin and extraction solvent, post agitation, and centrifugation. Table 8. Comparison of levels of alkaloids identified in harvested poppy seeds, seeds from the surface of bread rolls and seeds heated with no matrix. What was identified from this data was that whether the seeds were heated on the surface of the bread roll or were heated with no bread matrix, the levels of alkaloids if detected were considerably lower than in the harvested seeds.

Koleva et al. When comparing the results from the current work to levels published in the literature Table 9 it can be seen that these findings are in-keeping with those published by Sproll et al. The work published by Grove et al. However, this could have been due to the sensitivity of the GC-MS instrument employed, the lack of information regarding the presence of other alkaloids present in poppy seeds at this time as the work reported by Grove et al.

The levels of alkaloids identified in the current work are generally lower than those found by Sproll et al. This research has shown that alkaloid variation exists depends on the specific alkaloids, their source and thermal processing.

It was clear from the data obtained in this current work, and from other studies published in the literature, that there is much variation in the levels of alkaloids identified in poppy seeds. This variation can be attributed to a variety of natural parameters, such as weather and soil conditions, but also in the way that the seeds are harvested Lachenmeier et al. Processing methods prior to packaging and even the baking process has been shown to greatly affect the level of alkaloids Sproll et al.

The findings of this study correlate with the studies published in the literature. When poppy seeds are consumed on a bun or roll, it has been estimated that each roll contains 1—4 g of poppy seeds Lachenmeier et al. Assuming that the average salad contains 3—6 g 1—2 teaspoons of poppy seeds and the average bread bun has between 1. This value cannot be used when relating to young children, the elderly or individuals of poor health Sproll et al.

With respect to the values of morphine obtained in this work for harvested seeds, seeds on top of a bread roll and seeds heated with no matrix Table 10 and taking into account the weights of poppy seeds used in a variety of food products mentioned above, the morphine ingested will not exceed the ARfD determined by the EFSA. Table Comparison of alkaloids identified on harvested and thermally processed poppy seeds.

This update related to the detection of morphine, codeine, oripavine, noscapine, and papaverine in poppy seed samples whereas, the previous report related only to the levels of morphine entering the food chain. Codeine values were given in relation to morphine equivalents, using a conversion factor of 0. Noscapine and papaverine were considered in the most recent publication however, the data that was available to the EFSA did not allow for a hazard characterization but they did conclude that the presence of these compounds would not present a health concern.

In relation to the presence of thebaine and oripavine not included in the work of this paper , it was concluded that there was insufficient data to make any assessment. Based on these updated EFSA findings, the presence of the morphine and codeine in the poppy seeds analyzed in this work, would still would still fall below the recommendations outlined.

There is also little or no information on packaging of poppy seeds regarding what, if any, treatment has taken place prior to packaging. Since the ingestion of poppy seeds has been used as reasons for failure of workplace drug testing and roadside drug testing, more should be done to ensure as much information as is possible is available on the preparation methods of the seeds. The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

This work was approved by the Northumbria University Ethics committee. The university holds a UK Home Office Drug License for the storage and use of controlled drug standards and for the extraction of alkaloids from poppy seeds. The laboratory work, analysis of data and writing was carried out predominantly by MC.

JD and JA helped in the design and review of data and interpretation and all parties contributed to the writing and review of the article.

All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. This work was funded with the support from the Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. This work was carried out and submitted as part of a Ph. Annett, H. Factors influencing alkaloidal content and yield of latex in the opium poppy Papaver somniferum. History of opium. Askitopoulou, H. Archaeological evidence on the use of opium in the minoan world.

Bernath, J ed. Google Scholar. Bonicamp, J. Can a poppy seed food addict pass a drug test? Bozan, B. Chemical composition and oxidative stability of flax, safflower and poppy seed and seed oils. Carlin, M. Forensic science: roadside drug testing.

Control 42, — Following the Taliban's ban on opium poppy farming, there was a noticeable dip in opium and heroin seizures globally in and Although there has been cultivation in regions controlled until recently by the former government, most poppy growing has been concentrated in areas held by the Taliban.

Helmand province in southern Afghanistan, for example, had the most land used for poppy cultivation in when controlled by the Taliban. Opium farming is a major source of employment in Afghanistan, and in opium harvesting provided almost , jobs, according to the UNODC Afghanistan opium survey. The Taliban profits through taxes on the opium crop and indirectly through processing and trafficking, the US State Department says.

Taxes are also collected from the laboratories converting opium into heroin, as well as the traders who smuggle the illicit drugs. David Mansfield, a researcher on the illicit drug trade, says: "The taxation system as described by the UN and others is unrecognisable on the ground - it's unworkable both administratively and economically. Most comes from Mexico. But there has recently been a rise in seizures at sea, on routes between the Indian Ocean and Europe. Although there have been fluctuations, opium production and opium-related seizures have shown an upward trend over the last two decades, in line with poppy cultivation in Afghanistan.

Kochi State is the north-eastern part of the Union, and adjoins Yunnan. Approximately the northern half of the State is an area claimed by China.

Cultivation here was intended to he prohibited by but the war intervened. Under the Military Administration this cultivation was to be suppressed by May The independence of Burma and political turmoil have intervened.

There has also been some production in the eastern part of the Bhamo District, the southern part of Kachin State. In illegal crops were destroyed in this area. They were semi-independent; under British rule they were within the administrative area of Burma but managed by their own chiefs under the supervision of a special commissioner.

The producing States are cast of the Salween River, a rather inaccessible territory and in places subject to little or no administration. The recognized producing districts were Kokang, East Manglun and Kengtung. Production in for the Shan States seems to have been about 35 tons; before the war the reported production was 18 to 27 tons.

It is possible that there- is a further large production in unadministered Wa States. In the Superintendent of the Northern Shan States thought that the Wa States, in which there was then no control at all over opium, produced probably about 58, kg.

No opium has been exported from Burma to manufacturing countries. In the main, production is for addiction; but some is used for religious ceremonies, offered to the nats by Animists, particularly in Kachin State. By the Japanese. It is not quite clear whether the estimate applies to West Manglun only or to the whole of Manglun. The latter is assumed to be the case. Hence the total may be taken as about 35 tons. Thailand has considerable opium addiction. In there were nearly 60, known opium smokers, besides those drawing supplies from illicit sources.

In that year the Government used 36 tons of raw opium in the manufacture of smoking opium, as well as. The illicit opium was said to come chiefly from China and the Shan States. This production, in the wild and mountainous frontier region, was considered small and was subject to repressive action - destruction of the crop when found, seizure of opium, etc.

In a plan was started for bringing this production under Government control, and kg. The controlled production of was reported as 2, kg. The only recent information seems to he a declaration by the representative of the United States at the meeting of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. He stated that the northern hill tribes in Siamese territory were said to produce 84, to , kg.

The remainder was smuggled into Bankok, Burma and China. French Indo-China is another country. With much opium addiction.

On the average over a period of ten years the monopoly manufactured nearly Seizures were large; in and approximately a ton to a ton and a half; in nearly 7 tons said to be chiefly from Yunnan.

The showing of two such shipments in the reply of Iran is an error. However, the present policy is to end the legal sale of opium in Indo-China by the end of ; to this end sales will he reduced by 20 per-cent annually the sales for being taken as a basis; and allowances to European smokers are to be ended by the end of The poppy is grown by the Yaos and Meos tribes and occasionally by the Khas.

The fields are small and scattered in the mountains; the yield is said to he rather low, only 3 to 4 kg. This information is given in the reply to the Questionnaire on production of raw opium but the statistical table in the same reply shows an even lower estimate of yield; only some 2 to 3 kg.

The estimates in the reply to the Questionnaire for total production reproduced below would seem to be minimal, if the estimated areas under cultivation in the various years are approximately correct. In and political conditions; made Government purchases impossible, and the manufacture of smoking opium was completely 'interrupted from May to December In , 1, kg.

Production and non-medical consumption of opium are completely illegal in China, hence there are no statistics relating to present conditions. This has been the case for the last ten years. Statistics for the years to relate to a period during which a programme of elimination of permitted production was carried out. The intermediate statistics no longer have practical significance, but figures from at or near the beginning of the period still have an interest as maxima. They no longer, of course, reflect present conditions, but they show, roughly, the degree of addiction and the quantity of production existing in China only 15 years ago.

They provide a back- ground for understanding present conditions, the evaluation of which can be only superficially presented here. In the areas of permitted production totalled nearly , hectares. The production figures were obtained in Chinese ounces, and are subject to certain discrepancies, partly owing to belated returns and partly to different conversion factors.

According to the Annual Report of , the production in was some 5, metric tons, but according to the conversion equivalent earlier given, and that stated in books of reference, it would have been some 7, metric tons.

Eight other provinces were mentioned as producers, in addition to the seven of permitted production under the reduction programme. Open war with Japan broke out in In the attempt was begun to register the opium smokers. The Annual Report pointed out that it had been found extremely difficult to get the smokers to come forward for registration, especially as they realized that the Government intended to force them to take a cure, or, even if they qualified for official opium, to cut off their supplies within a few years.

However, in , the smokers who had been registered numbered 4,, Some was smuggled out, but usually much more was smuggled in for Chinese consumption. For the past ten years the Chinese Government has done its best toward complete suppression of opium production and opium addiction.

Civil disorders, the war with Japan and the civil war with the Communists have interfered. In the provinces under Japanese rule during the war opium production was encouraged, and even forced upon the peasants. Drug addiction was spread amongst the people- There were over a million known addicts in Japanese-controlled areas at the end of the war. They have been accused by the Nationalist Government of encouraging opium production and opium smoking.

It is believed that the Chinese Communists claim that production in the areas they control is only to meet their medical needs, especially those of their armies. At any rate, if they try to suppress opium addiction, they are subject to the same handicaps as the Nationalist Government. It would not be surprising if in areas imperfectly controlled, or not controlled at all by either Government, conditions were to return to the same level as in Such is the background of China's; opium predicament.

As the civil war still continues, it is difficult to evaluate the present situation, but some notes will be offered indicating where illicit opium is most likely to he produced, and the extent of illicit cultivation. There is seldom any production in the great eastern provinces, the most densely populated regions, the home of Chinese civilization. Except when some local military authorities Yunnan may surreptitiously favour opium cultivation, it is not now a very open thing, but is located largely in mountainous, backward regions.

There seems still to be tremendous production in Yunnan. The Shan States of southern Yunnan are a wild, mountainous, semi-independent district, inhabited by the same race as inhabits Laos in Indo-China and the Shan States of Burma. A considerable part of Yunnan's production is there.

At the meeting of the Narcotics Commission, the representative of the United States referred to a report concerning 1, kg. This smuggling was apparently not all in one direction, as four months earlier, in the preceding year , the Chinese Government had seized two tons of opium on an aeroplane coming from Thailand. No reports were made from Yunnan, Jehol, Kweichow or Ningsia in that year. The destruction of 20, hectares in Szechwan was so far from clearing up the situation that more than , hectares were destroyed in the same province in The total destruction of cultivation in , according to the Report, covered , hectares, the greater Part.

This destruction is so enormous that one fears there may be some mistake, as when, in the and Reports, decimal points were omitted that had been used in previous years in the hectares column. At any rate the continuance into of a very extensive illicit cultivation is shown.

No Annual Reports have been received since Kazakstan is the. The main producing region is called by the Russians Semirechye; it is south-eastward from Lake Balkhash, and is part of the territory sometimes called Russian Turkestan. This area is right in the heart of the continent. It is not so very far north and cast from Kashmir and eastern Afghanistan and, as already mentioned, borders Sinkiang, sometimes called Chinese Turkestan. Russian writers mention particularly the outliers of the Tian-Shan, Tarbagatai and Alatau mountains, as places of cultivation.

The last name in somewhat variously applied. In Semirechye the Tian-Shan subspecies of poppy is chiefly grown. This is a dwarf race that barely comes above the knees of the cultivators, whereas the European varieties of Papaver somniferum probably average shoulder-high. The opium is used entirely for medical and manufacturing purposes. In general the production just about meets the needs of the USSR; how- ever, there are great variations in the amount produced. The reports showed a variation from more than tons in highest down to some 23 tons in lowest.

The ten year average, to , was some 70 tons. Both the area planted and that actually harvested were stated from to ; the averages were: planted, about 13, hectares; harvested, about 8, hectares. In , a poor crop year in Semirechye, 19, kg. The USSR is one of the chief countries of the world for the manufacture of morphine and other narcotic drugs from opium. The last Annual Reports received showed the existence of a sizeable illicit traffic in certain border regions, those adjoining Iran, Afghanistan and China.

Over 3. No post-war information on this traffic is available. The following figures show the pre-war areas and seizures, [ 25 ] , [ 49 ] and both pre-war and post-war production and opium used for the manufacture of morphine. People's Republic. No recent or official information is available. It is only known that opium was produced here, and some of it was sold to the Japanese during the period that Japan controlled Manchuria.

Korea is at present divided into two separate administrative units. South Korea and North Korea. The greater part of the population is in South Korea, but the greater part, about 85 per cent, of the opium production was in North Korea. No post-war information is available, however, concerning production in North Korea. Korea under the Japanese was an opium exporting Country. The exports went to non-manufacturing countries - Kwantung Leased Territory in China , Manchuria and Formosa - for addiction purposes, i.

The small difference would not seem sufficient to account for the drugs manufactured within Korea by the Japanese. However, the Seoul factory used an ammonium chloride process for obtaining morphine, which left some 4 per cent morphine in the opium residue. This residue was then mixed with good opium and sold to Formosa and Manchuria. There was much illicit traffic in the country. Opium was grown secretly in the more remote, mountainous areas, and many of the opium farmers diverted part of their crop to illicit channels.

In over 5 tons of opium were confiscated by the authorities. The prohibition, at last accounts, was not very successful. It is known that considerable opium was produced; however, there is no way to estimate how much it may have been, or what disposition was made of it.

The most of it was perhaps consumed in South Korea. The reply to the Questionnaire indicates that prohibition of poppy culture may not he a permanent policy for Korea. The land upon which poppy is grown is not very adaptable for food crops. However, until such time as Korea may be designated an opium-producing country, farmers will he advised of the prohibition and they will be urged to grow millet, beans and potatoes on the land.

Japan has almost ceased to he an opium-producing country in any sense. Cultivation of the poppy is prohibited under the occupation, and there were only four cases of illicit cultivation discovered in The individuals were prosecuted and fined although they claimed they were not aware of the prohibition. The entire amount was used for the manufacture of drugs and medicinal opium.

Japanese pharmaceutical companies also processed poppy chaff into pharmaceutical extracts and powders, but did ,not extract pure morphine or other alkaloids from it. Because of Japans violations of international narcotic laws, before and during the war, it is intended that Japanese production of narcotics shall not he permitted. The following figures of opium production are from the reply made to the Questionnaire by U. Mexico has a problem of illegal production, which apparently only began about The Annual Report of mentions the discovery of a planting of opium poppies in Sonora.

In there were a -number of seizures of opium which probably had a domestic origin. In the discovery of three plantings in Sonora covering 25 hectares was mentioned; in plantings were discovered in Sinaloa, and in the opium seized was said to have its origin in Sonora, Sinaloa, Duringo and Lower California.

In the destruction of planted areas covering 48 hectares, in Sonora and Sinaloa, was noted in the Annual Report. But with the war the ordinary supply sources of illicit opium were cut off, and gangsters and illicit traffickers of the United States turned to Mexico for supplies, and became the principal customers. The actual producers are mostly Indian farmers who grow small plots of poppies. In the plantings were chiefly in river valleys, but by , in consequence of the Governmental campaigns against opium cultivation, they had moved into places such as canyons, ravines, and mountain ridges, inaccessible by any ordinary roads.

The opium is seldom smuggled in its natural raw state. Either it is converted into smoking opium-generally highly adulterated-and smuggled in that form, or the morphine is extracted and converted to heroin in clandestine laboratories.

Usually the Mexicans do not. When the United Nations, took up the international narcotic problems, Mexican opium production was a grave problem to the United States. Narcotics Administration. The matter was brought up at the first session of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, in The representative of Mexico to the Narcotics Commission added a reference to Jalisco.

It was estimated that the poppy fields then numbered close to 10,, averaging one-half hectare or more per field. The total area under poppy cultivation was estimated at between 4, and 5, hectares, producing from 32 to 40 metric tons of opium. At the following meeting the Mexican campaigns against opium cultivation were praised.